Poultry-Terms

Terms commonly used in poultry farming:

1. Debeaking- Debeaking is a process of cutting one third of upper beak at 15 days age for first time and at 16th week for second time. As a result of debeaking, the chicken may not involve in cannibalism and can easily procure the soft food without waste. Debeaking is taken up by a machine called Debeaker. Two thirds of the beak is removed in V shaped structure.

 

2. Dubbing
In Poultry Dubbing is a process in which crown and wattles are trimmed in young chicken. This process is taken up in the first 3 days. Dubbing results in faster growth and production egg increases by two percent.

 

 

 

3. Cannibalism

Cannibalism in poultry is referred to as one bird pecking the other bird. The cannibalism in fowls may be caused because of several reasons:

1. May be hereditary

2. Rearing of number of fowls in less space 3. Since they are not subjected to debeaking

4. Supplying more tasteful, energetic and salty food and

5. More temperature in the poultry farm. These reasons can be made set right except the hereditary characters.

4. Broodiness.
The broodiness in fowls is caused due to hormonal influence. The broody fowls do not lay eggs and feed. Such fowls are to be separated and kept in bright light. Broodiness in fowls is treated by
giving estrogen injection and nutrient food.

5. Prolaps

The ejected oviduct through the cloaca of hens fed with fat rich food material is called prolaps. The oviduct ejects outside during egg laying. This condition is also caused due to heavyweight of the birds or laying large sized eggs. The ejected oviduct is not with drawn due to inability of its contraction.

 

6. Culling

Culling is the process of separating or eliminating sick and nonproductive birds from the poultry. The non-productive birds can be distinguished from the productive birds by the following characters.

previous topic :Disease in Poultry

Poultry-Diseases

DISEASES IN POULTRY

In the intensive system of commercial poultry farming, the birds are
subjected to various types of diseases. The diseases in poultry are
caused by a variety of agents. As such, the diseases are classified

as

 I) Bacterial diseases,

II) Viral diseases,

lll) Fungal diseases,

IV) Protozoan diseases

V)Parasitic diseases and

VI) Nutritional deficiency diseases.

I. BACTERIAL DISEASES in POULTRY

A. Chronic Respiratory Disease - This is the egg transmitted disease.

2. The production of the eggs falls down in layers.
3. The symptoms of the disease are sneezing, swollen sinuses, eyes and respiratory distress, reduced body weight, etc.
4. Disease could be controlled by dipping of hatching eggs in
antibiotic solutions and giving antibiotics such as Tylosin.

B. Fowl Cholera

1. This disease is spread by the birds like crows.
2. The symptoms of the disease are
a) Greenish yellow diarrhea
b) Purplish discoloration of comb and wattles, and
c) Respiratory trouble, stop feeding.
3. Disease could be controlled by treating with sulphonamides and antibiotics.

 

 

C. Coryza

1. The disease is transmitted through water and moist litter.
2. Symptoms of the disease are coughing, sneezing, swoollen
face, breathing problem, eye lids stick together and the
discharge from the eyes and nostrils emit bad smell, reduced
feed consumption and low egg production.
3. Disease may be controlled by treating the birds with
sulphathiazole in water and feed or giving streptomycin intramuscularly.

D. Pullorum Disease in Fowls

1. This disease is caused by Salmonella pullorum to young chicken of 5-10 days.
2. The fowls themselves are the carriers of this disease.
3. The body of young chicken is moist and aggregate in groups.
4. Symptoms of the disease are . dullness, and white diarrhoea. Due to this symptom, this disease is called Bacillary white diarrhoea. Breathing problem and high mortality occur in these birds.
5. Nitroferan compounds are used to control mortality.

E. Spirochaetosis in poultry

1. This disease is caused by spirochaets.
2. The disease is transmitted by the fowl ticks, hence it can be called tick fever.
3. Symptoms of the disease are high fever, greenish diarrhoea, pale combs and wattles, increased thirst and paralysis before
death.
4. The disease may be controlled by killling ticks and giving
pencillin for the birds.

VIRAL DISEASES IN POULTRY

A. Marek’s Disease
. .
1. This is contagious disease.
2. The wings and fleck fall down. They do not drink water. Weight of the body reduces. They move away from other fowls.
3. Symptoms are paralysis and loss of vision in old birds.

4. No treatment is available but vaccination to the young chicks gives protection.

B. Ranikhet disease

1. This is also called New castle disease.
2. It is a contagious disease.
3. Symptoms are breathing problem, coughing, nasal discharge,
greenish diarrhoea and paralysis.
4. No specific treatment is available. However, mild doses of
vaccine followed by booster doses of strong vaccine reduce
the risk of disease.

C.Infectious bronchitis in Poultry

1.This is a contagious disease.
2.Symptoms are sneezing, coughing, high mortality in young ones, drop in egg production, thin shell eggs, etc.
3. No specific treatment, but mass vaccination of young chicks is effective in preventing the disease.

D.Infectious laryngotrachitis

1.This is a contagious disease which affects the older birds.
2. The symptoms are:
i. Marked respiratory problems, swelling of the face
ii. Drop in egg production and
iii. High mortality rate.
3. No definite treatment but vaccination controls the disease to some extent.

E. Fowl Fox

1. This is a mild disease effecting young chicken and layers.
2. The main symptom to identify this disease is the typical wart -like structure, skin or mouth found on the comb.
3. Breathing is difficult. It spreads through mosquitoes.
4. Vaccination is proved to be effective.

 

F. Gumboro Disease

1. It is infectious and effects younger birds of 4 - 8 weeks.
2. Disease spreads through feed and water.
3. Symptoms of the disease are watery diarrhoea, depression stop feeding and young ones shiver.

FUNGAL DISEASES IN POULTRY

A.Brooder Pneumonia :

This disease is also named as Aspergillosis. It is caused by a fungus, Aspergillus fumigatus. This disease spreads through litter and feed to the young ones of brooding stage.

2. Symptoms of the disease are breathing problem, gasping, inflammed eyes and high mortality.

3. No treatment is available.

B. Aflotoxicosis:
1. This disease is caused by Asperigillus flavus.
2. It spreads through contaminated litter and feed.
3. The symptoms are variable. Fall of immunity and are liable to be afected with other diseases. The egg laying capacity falls down and the fowls are destroyed.
4. It may be prevented by avoiding moisture, contaminated teed and litter.

IV. PROTOZOAN DISEASE IN POULTRY:

1. The protozoan parasite, Elmeria causes coccidiasis in fowls.
2. It spreads mostly to young ones through litter and water.
3. The symptoms are: depression, droopiness, ruffled feathers, young ones agregate in flocks, take less food and water, and
bloody diarrhoea. Mortality in these birds is severe.
4. This can be treated through water medication. Nitrofurazone and other medicines are often used.

V. PARASITIC DISEASES IN POULTRY

The diseases are caused either due to ecto parasites or endo parasites.

1. Ectoparasites Ticks, mites, lice and fleas are the common ectoparasites.
They cause generally severe irritation by biting or sucking.
They can be prevented by using insecticide like DDT.

2. Endo parasites Helminths like nematodes (round worms) cestodes (tape worms) and trematodes (flukes) are the common endo parasites. The symptoms caused by these organisms vary depending on the parasite. For treatment, the drugs like carbontetrachloride, turpentine are used.

 

VI. POULTRY-NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES
These diseases are caused by the dificiency ot nutrients such as vitamins and minerals in the feed. For example the deficiency of vitamin E causes a disease called “Encephalomalacia” in poultry. The nutritional deficiency diseases are due to intensive method of poultry farming. They can be rectified by treating the poultry with the balanced feed.

previous topic:poultry-layers-broilers

Poultry-Layers-Broilers

LAYERS – BROILERS IN POULTRY

      Generally, two types of chicken are grown in poultry farming. They are layers and broilers. The layers are grown only to lay eggs, whereas the broilers are grown for flesh. More or less, both layers and broilers require similar type of equipment and facilities.

            

The growth and economy of any poultry farm depends totally on the type of breeds and the management efficiencies. A variety of high yielding layers and broilers are available. These varieties are produced by the process of hybridization. The baby chicks of high quality in layers and broilers are produced by hatcheries. For poultry farming, the new born chicks are to be obtained. These one day old chicks are to be subjected for brooding. Brooding is the care and management exerted in the first few weeks after hatching (40 to 60 days). The artificial brooding is employed for this purpose. The artificial brooding is the method of handling chicks without the aid of mother hen. In this process, the farm houses and cages should be made ready for the baby chicks. The surroundings of the house and the equipment should be kept clean by using insecticides.

 

Poultry farming -Layers

The born chicks e newly are to be kept in brooders or brooding hovers. Brooders have l0 x 12 feet or 12 x 12 feet dimensions and accommodate 250 young chicks. Brooder generates heat (90° - 95°F) from the bulbs arranged in them. The temperature in the first week is to be maintained t 90-95°F. A temperature of 5° F is to be reduced for every week. The temperature in fourth week is at 75- 85°F. In some instances, infra-red bulbs are also used for brooding. In the absence of electricity, the fuel such as kerosene and gas are used to generate the heat. Temperature should be uniform for brooding purpose. At high temperature, the young chicks move away from the brooder and they get congregated at low temperatures.

An iron or bamboo mesh is normally used to protect the brooder. This mesh is named as chick guard. The chick guard keeps the young chick together in the brooder. Chick guard covers an area of 3 feet around the brooder and it is 2 feet above the ground level. The brooders are kept in brooding hover for five weeks.

The broods are to be fed initially with wheat or corn granules. This food is given in the first 3 days. In the first two weeks the immunity of the birds is very less and effected with diseases like Coccidiasis and Fowl pox. Coccidiasis is treated by giving coccidiostats, Amprosol and cardinal drugs, Fowl pox is treated by giving vaccination.

The layers are to be given a special diet from the third day onwards. This food is named as chick mash. It is constituted by 20% proteins and has a high calorific value. The mash is to be given along with water in the first few weeks. Dry mash can be given subsequently. The mash should be given for every two hours to the young chicks.
Water is to be supplied 3 to 4 times a day. The temperature maintained in the brooders is to be decreased gradually per every week. As a result, only 75° - 80°F temperature persists in brooders. From 9th week onwards, the lights may be reduced in the poultry. For a few days, zero watt bulbs are used to maintain light. The young chicken are subjected to debeaking on 21st. day.
The chicks grown for about twenty weeks are called growers. The growers are to be fed with grower mash or grower ration.

The young chicks grown in brooders should belong to the same age group. These chicks in the first few weeks are easily susceptible for fowl pox. Hence, they are to be treated properly.

The chicks aged 14 - 15 weeks usually suffer from the parasites such as round worm and tape worm. They are to be treated with anti-helminthes medicines. As a result of this treatment, the worms in the alimentary canal die and come out along with faeces. This is called deworming. The deworming is to be done for every 5 - 6 weeks.

The young chicks involve in cannibalism. This cannibalism can be prevented by debeaking which could be taken up once again at the age of 17 or 18 weeks.
The chicken at the age of 18 to 22 weeks start egg laying. At this stage, they are given a diet referred to as layer mash. The chicken at this stage are to be transferred into the cages. Four or  five chicken may be kept in a cage.

 

Broilers

These are the birds grown for meat purpose. The poultry house and equipment  required to grow broilers are much similar to that of layers. A broiler needs 1 square foot area in the farm house. The young chicks brought from hatcheries are to be kept in brooders. The brooding time in broilers vary with season. In summer, they require only 2 weeks, whereas in winter they need brooding for about one month. After one month chick guards can be removed. During night time sufficient lights should be established.
After one month the male and female are to be separated and reared separately.
The food given to broilers up to 42 days is called broiler starter mash. It contains 25% of proteins. From 7th week onwards, each broiler weighs 1 -1.5 kgs. and get ready for marketing purpose. The food given to broilers from 7th week onwards is called broiler finish mash. It co ins more carbohydrates and less proteins. In broilers the wieght of male or cock is higher than female or hen.

previous topic:poultry-housing

Poultry-Housing System

HOUSING IN POULTRY

POULTRY-Housing System
The poultry house requires certain features for the better farming of poultry. They are:

1. The poultry houses or farms are to be located in non-residential areas so that the poultry is away from noise, dust, etc.

2. The farm should be constructed in such a way that it maintains good environmental conditions.

3. The farm should be elevated from the ground. Due to this, water may not get into the farm during rainy season.

4. The poultry farms are to be constructed in east to west direction along their length. As a result, good sun-shine is available.

5. The farm is to be located in a place where transport facilities are available. Water, electricity, feed and equipment are to be within the reach of the farm.

6.The farm is to be located near the consumer areas.

7. The poultry housing also requires proper temperature and light. At 30° C, the chicken can lay eggs well. Electric bulbs should be arranged at a height of 7ff. in poultry farms to provide warmness. These lights are to be switched on during first seven weeks. A relative humidity of 50-60% is ideal for poultry.

8. The sheds are to be ventilated properly. Proper ventilation helps in providing sufficient oxygen for birds and removes harmful gases such as ammonia and carbon dioxide. It also removes moisture in the house and helps in keeping optimum temperatures. To facilitate ventilation, the farm house is to be constructed in such a way that it should have an open front, adjustable windows or cloth covered frames and ventilation at ridge level.

9.The flooring of poultry house is to be constructed either with cement or napa slabs. Its roof is to be constructed either with palmyra leaves or cement sheets.

10. The chicken in a poultry farm are to be fed with sufficient food and water. Food troughs and water troughs are to be arranged depending on the size of poultry farm. The egg laying pots are also to be established in poultry sheds. One food trough is to be kept for every 20 fowls. The food troughs should not be filled completely with food material. The water given to fowls should be always clean and sufficient.

There are two important housing systems in poultry farms. They are

1. Deep litter system and 2. Cage system

 

1. Deep litter poultry system

This is the conventional housing system of poultry farms practiced since long back. 

The floor in the poultry farm is tube covered with a layer of saw dust, paddy  husk or straw. This layer is about 4 inches in thickness in summer, while in other seasons 7 inches thick layer is used on the floor. This layer of saw dust, paddy husk or straw which covers the floor of the poultry farm is called litter. The litter should be always

in dry condition. The droppings of birds produce ammonia. In wet condition, more ammonia in the litter may cause diseases. Hence, it should be mixed periodically with lime to reduce the percentage of ammonia in the litter. Further the litter should be changed once in a year. Growing chicken on floor covered by litter is said to be the Deep litter system (deep litter) or loose housing system.

The dimensions of the poultry house depend on the number of chicks to be accommodated. For example, 125 chicks require a space of about 400 square feet. A chick normally requires 2.25 square feet. It should be remembered that more than 250 chicks should not be accommodated in a poultry house. A distance of 40 feet is to be maintained in between two poultry houses or sheds.

2. Cage System  in Poultry
Of late, many farmers are growing chicks by using cage system. In this system, the birds are grown in cages made of iron mesh. For growing about 25 fowls a cage measuring is 36” x 48” is used. Lesser dimension cages are used for growing small flocks. The cages are arranged in 2 or 3 tiers in poultry houses. Feeding, watering and other facilities are given to the chicken introduced in these cages.

cage method  in Poultry-advantages:

1. In this method, there is no wastage of space and food.

2. Chicks involved in cannibalism may be easily identified and removed. Cannibalism in poultry is referred to as one bird pecking at the other bird. 

3. The diseased birds can easily be separated.

4. Less labor is involved in this method.

5. Collection of eggs is an easy process.

6. Mortality rate is less in this system.

cage system disadvantages they are:

1. The cracked eggs are common.

2. It is difficult to clean the individual cages and to dispose the manure.

3. The food may not be distributed accurately depending on the consumption of the birds in the cage.

4. The birds are frequently subjected to a disease called cage layer fatigue. The bird lies on its side giving an impression that it is affected with paralysis. Hence, this is referred to as cage paralysis or cage layer fatigue.

5. Fatty liver syndrome is common in cage system. It is characterised by

i) a gradual drop in egg production (40% - 10%),

ii) fatty, enlarged, tan colored liver is noticeable, and

iii) birds become fatty.

In cage culture certain precautions are to be followed. They are:
1. In summer, water is to be sprinkled on cages. This is due to the fact that cage poultry needs protection from excessive heat in severe summer.

2. The chicks should be subjected to dubbing and debeaking. As a result of debeaking, the chicken may not involve in cannibalism and can easily procure the soft food without waste.

POULTRY-Equipment

Depending on size and type of poultry farm, various types of equipment are  to be used in poultry farms. The number and size of the equip mental sovary. Important poultry house equipment includes Perches, Feed hoppers, Watering devices, De beakers, Chick guards, Laying nests, Brooding hovers etc.

also visit:poultry breeding

Poultry Farming

INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY

Rearing a variety of birds such as chicks, turkeys and ducks is referred to as poultry. Chicken forms the major poultry farming all over the world. India occupies 6th position in the poultry farming in the world. According to an estimate, 100 crores worth of eggs and chicken are produced every year from India and 15 lakh people are dependent on this industry.
The extraordinary progress of poultry farming in India is due to the following reasons.

1. Poultry requires less investment.
2. It generates income in a short span of time.
3. It provides work round the year.
4. It can be started as a cottage industry.
5. It produces good quality of animal proteins. (Nutrient value of egg is 13.3% of proteins; 13.3% of fats; 173 K. cal. of energy; 60 mg. of calcium; 220 mg. of phosphorus and some vitamins, iron efë. About 100 gms. of flesh of chicken consists of 26.0% proteins; 0.6% fats; 109 K. cal. of energy; 25mg. calcium and 245 mg. phosphorus).
6. It can be started as a self employment scheme.
7. Government is giving loans to encourage poultry.
8. The feed can be better utilised by poultry. As a result, less food consumption and better growth of poultry are realised.
9.Poultry is also suitable for mixed farm conditions.

10.Marketing facilities for the sale of poultry products are available.

11. Education and training programmers are taken up by the Government to encourage youth to involve in poultry farming.

Andhra Pradesh occupies the first position in Poultry farming in India. The poultry forms in A.P. are about one lakh. Punjab and Maharashtra occupy the second and third places in poultry products.

The domestic fowl is allowed to move freely in open places in villages. These birds freely move and lay a few number of eggs. This is the only system normally practiced for growing chicks in villages for a longtime. However, this method is not proved to be economical. As an alternative to this, poultry farming is initiated.

POULTRY FARMING METHODS

Some important aspects are to be followed in poultry farming. They are i. poultry housing and equipment ii. management of chicks - broilers and layers iii. poultry diseases iv. poultry products, marketing and economics. In poultry farming, the birds may be grown either by the semi intensive system or intensive system.

SEMI – INTENSIVE POULTRY FARMING SYSTEM

This system is adopted where the free space available is limited. A space of 20-30 square yards is to be allowed per each bird of outside run. Some times the birds may be allowed to move onto fresh ground.

 

POULTRY FARMING-INTENSIVE SYSTEM

In this method, proper care is to be taken to grow the chicken. The intensive system is the common system employed in poultry farms. In this system, birds are grown freely in houses or cages arranged in tiers. Housing is meant for providing ideal conditions for the chicken so as to give efficient production.

know more about on the topic Poultry breeding

Allergy

ALLERGIC REACTIONS

Some people are highly sensitive to one or more substances. These substances are called ALLERGENS and they are generally weak antigens. Antibodies to allergens combine with receptors on the body’s mast cells. Every person is not allergic to all allergens nor does the first exposure to an allergen causes Allergy. It only helps to form antibodies. However, on second exposure the allergens combine with anti body - bound mast cells.

This complexing causes the cells to burst and release histamines which are responsible for inflammatory responses. Allergic reactions are usually very rapid. The most common manifestations are  limitation of the mucous membrane, frequent sneezing, skin rashes, watering of eyes and inability to breathe.

When large amount of histamine is suddenly released by the mast cells, a severe allergic reaction occurs, that is known as Anaphylactic shock. For example some persons die even to a single dose of penicillin.

previous topic :Hepatitis

Hepatitis-Symptoms Types Treatment

HEPATITIS

Hepatitis may be defined as infection of liver caused by viruses like hepatitis A virus (HAV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), hepatitis D virus, and hepatitis E virus (HEV). Hepatitis caused by other than HAV & HBV is called non - A non - B hepatitis. 

Hepatitis is also caused by cytomegalo virus, Epstein - Barr virus, yellow fever virus and Rubella virus. Viruses of herpes simplex, varicella and adenovirus can also cause severe hepatitis in immune compromised patients.

Approximately 4 million people in India suffer every year from one or the other form of acute viral hepatitis.

Hepatitis - A

It is formerly known as infectious” hepatitis or epidemic jaundice caused by hepatitis A virus. Risk of transmitting HAV is greatest from 2 weeks before and 1 week after the onset of jaundice. Incubation period of HAV is 15 to 45 days.

1.Hepatitis – A - Modes of transmission

a. Fecal-oral route- is the major route of transmission. It may occur by direct (person to person) contact (or) indirect by way of contaminated water, food or milk.
b. It rarely transmits through parental route and through sex (Homosexuals)

2. Hepatitis – A -Clinical features
The clinical symptoms of Hepatitis A occur in 3 phases

i. There is an initial prodromal phase lasting for 2 - 5 days characterised by anorexia (loss of appetite), nausea, malaise and mild fever. Severe vomiting may also occur.

ii. This is followed by Icteric phase with onset of jaundice, dark coloured urine and pale stools.

iii. Recovery phase is characterized by gradual resolution of symptoms.
3. Control and treatment  Pre exposure prophylaxis can be given to the  people who migrate to endemic area.
ii. Post exposure prophylaxis is with Immune serum globulin (0.02 mI/kg) given intramuscularly with in 2 weeks of exposure.
iii. There is no specific vaccine for HAV.

Hepatitis B

It is formerly known as “serum” hepatitis. U is caused by Hepatitis ‘B’ virus and transmitted usually by parenteral route. Hepatitis ‘B’ is a major public health problem in India.

HB virus is present in blood saliva, vaginal secretions and semen of infected persons. The disease may be transmitted to others either during the incubation period or acute phase of the disease. The Incubation period of HB virus is 45 to 180 days.

1. Hepatitis B-Mode of transmission

i. It is transmitted by transfusion of infected blood and blood products, dialysis, contaminated syringe needle pricks to skin and through surgical & dental procedures.
It may be transmitted from HBV carrier mothers to their babies.

ii. 2.Hepatitis B- Clinical features
The clinical symptoms of hepatitis B are similar to other types of viral hepatitis.
But it is complicated by carrier state and by chronic liver disease which nay follow the infection. Chronic liver disease may lead to primary liver cancer.

iii. 3.Hepatitis B- Prevention and treatment
There is no specific treatment for Hepatitis B. However, the following preventive measures can be taken in the form of vaccines.

i. Hepatitis Plasma derived vaccine
This vaccine is given in 3 does at 0, 1st and 6th months. Each dose contains 1 ml of vaccine. It should be given intramuscularly. Children under 10 years of age should be given half of the above close at same time intervals. Booster doses may be given a ter 3 - 8 years.

ii. Hepatitis B-Recombinant DNA - Yeast derived vaccine
This vaccine is given in a dose of 10-20 ig initially and again at 1st and 6th month.
If a person shows the symptoms immediately after receiving Hepatitis B positive blood, Hepatitis ‘B’ immunoglobin I (HBIG) injection may be given for protection. Two doses

cn HBIG should be given (0.05 to 0.07 mI/kg of body weight) at an interval of 30 days.

Hepatitis C

Hepatitis C virus is the commonest cause of post transfusion hepatitis. The virus is mainly transmitted through transfusion of contaminated blood products. 50% of cases are related to intravenous drug user’s needles.

The incubation period from 6 - 7 weeks. There is 50% incidence of chronic hepatitis, which may lead to cirrhosis of liver or liver cancer. Interferon is the only drug that has been found effective in the treatment of HCV infection.

Hepatitis D
Hepatitis D virus alone cannot cause hepatitis. Hepatitis 0 or Delta infection occurs either as a concomitant infection of HDV with hepatitis B or as a super infection. It occurs among drug addicts and hemophiliacs.
Delta hepatitis can be an acute or a chronic hepatitis with the latter frequently leading to hepatic cirrhosis. Treatment, prevention and mode of transmission are same as that of Hepatitis D.

Hepatitis E
The infection caused by the hepatitis E virus is essentially a water borne disease. After an incubation period of 2 - 9 weeks, a self limiting acute viral hepatitis appears, lasting for a period of several weeks, followed by recovery. Clinical features are similar to Hepatitis ‘A’ infection.

previous topic AIDS-HIV and AIDS-HIV symptoms and controlling measures

AIDS-Clinical Manifestations

Clinical Manifestations of AIDS

The clinical manifestation of AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome occurs in 4 stages namely:

i. Initial infection of the virus and antibody production:
Most HIV - infected people have no symptoms for the first five years or so. Few patients may show mild illness like fever, sore throat and rash. HIV antibodies usually appear within 2 to 12 weeks in the blood stream. The period between HIV infection and antibody production is called “Window Period.

II. Asymptomatic carrier state:
Infected people have antibodies, but no overt signs of disease except persistent generalised lymphadenopathy. (enlargement of lymph nodes).

iii. Aids - Related complex (ARC):
ARC is due to damage to the immune system but without opportunistic infections and cancers.
ARC exhibits clinical features like Diarrhoea lasting longer than a month, fatigue, loss of more than 10% of body weight, fever, night sweats & generalised lymphadenopathy.

iv. Aids:
Aids is the last stage of HIV infection. A number of opportunistic infections and cancers occur at this stage. Death is due to uncontrolled or untreatable infection.
Opportunistic infections & cancers are Tuberculosis, kaposi sarcoma (cancer) oropharyngeal candidiasis, penumocysuis carinii pneumonia, recurrent skin infections.

3.   AIDS-Diagnosis
Aids is diagnosed by two methods namely
a. Clinical diagnosis and b. Laboratory diagnosis. a. Clinical diagnosis: An adult or adolescent (>12 years of age) is considered to have AIDS if at least 2 of the following major signs are present in combination with at least 1 of the minor signs listed below.

AIDS-Major signs-syptoms:

i. Weight loss> 10% body weight.
ii. Chronic diarrhoea for more than 1 month
iii. Prolonged fever for more than 1 month.

AIDS-Minor signs-syptoms:
I. Persistant cough for more than 1 month.
ii. Generalised pruritic dermatitis. 
iii. Oropharyngeal candidiasis
iv. Generalised lymphadenopathy.
v. History of Herpes zoster (a viral disease).

iii. AIDS-Laboratory diagnosis:
The AIDS can be diagnosed in a patient by using the following tests.
i. Elisa - Test and

 

ii. Tridot - Test which are Screening Tests and
iii. Western - Blot Test which is Confirmatory Test.
These tests are used to detect HIV antibodies. A person whose blood contains HIV antibodies is said to be HIV positive

AIDS- CONTROL
Aids is controlled by the following methods 

i. Educating the people to make life saving choices (avoiding indiscriminate sex, using condoms etc.).
ii. Intra venous drug users should be informed that the sharing of needles and syringes involves special risk.
iii. Womens suffering from Aids should avoid becoming pregnant because infection can be transmitted to her children.
iv. Blood should be screened for HIV1 and HIV2 before transfusion transfusion. Pre sterilised disposable needles, syringes should be used as far as possible.

5. AIDS- Treatment
At present there is no vaccine or cure for treatment of HIV infection. The drugs like zidovudine, didanosine, zalcitabine and stavudine are proved to be useful in prolonging the life of Aids patients.

AIDS-Acquired Immuno deficiency Syndrome

Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS)

The acquired Immuno-deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is fatal illness caused by a retrovirus called Human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV). The HI virus breaks down the body’s immune system, leaving the victim vulnerable to a host of life threatening opportunistic infections viz., neurological disorders or unusual malignancies. The term AIDS refers only to the last stage of the HIV infection. There are five groups of adults at risk for developing AIDS. They are

1. Homosexual or Bisexual males (60%)
2. Intravenous drug abusers (23%)
3. Recipients of blood and blood products (2%)
4. Heterosexual contacts (6%)
5. Haemophiliacs (1%)
1
The HIV is 10000th. of a millimetre in diameter. It is a protein capsule containing two short strands of genetic material (RNA) and enzymes. The virus replicates in actively dividing T4 lymphocytes and can remain in lymphoid cells. The virus has the unique ability to destroy human T4 helper cells or T -4 cells. (a type of human T - lymphocytes). There are two types of HIV. The most common virus HIV - 1 and a more recently discovered virus HIV -2. Once a person is infected, the virus remains in the body lifelong. The virus also infects other cells of immune system such as B-cells, macrophages, and nerve cells.

The incubation period of HI virus varies from few months to 6 years or more. When the virus reproduces, the infected T-helper cells are destroyed that leads to profound lymphopenia with a total lymphocyte count often below 500/mm3 of blood.

  HIV (AIDS)-TRANSMISSION
Human Immuno - deficiency virus is not transmitted by contamination that is insects or food or drinking water.

Human Immuno-deficiency virus is transmitted from person to person in the following ways.
i. Sexual transmission ii. Blood contact iii. Maternal - foetal transmission.

i. Sexual transmission:

AIDS is the first and foremost sexually transmitted disease. Veginal, anal or oral sex can spread AIDS from person to person. Adolescent girls and women above 45 years of age are more prone to get HIV infection.

ii. Blood Contact:

AIDS is transmitted by transfusion of contaminated blood. Needle sharing by drug users is also another method of transmission.

iii. Mother to child transmission:
HIV may pass from an infected mother to her foetus through
placenta orto her infant during delivery or by breast feeding.

HIV or AIDS  is not transmitted through following ways

also visit basics of immunity  and Hepatitis-symptoms-Types-Treatment

Immune System-Cells

Cells of the Immune System

The major cells of the immune system are lymphocytes. Lymphocytes that are critical for immune reactions are of two types namely B -cells and

T- cells. Both cells develop from stem cells located in the liver of the foetus and in bone marrow cells of adults. 

The lymphocytes which are differentiated in the bone marrow are B - Cells. The lymphocytes that migrate to thymus and differentiate under its influence are called T - cells. The young lymphocytes migrate to lymphoid tissues such as spleen, lymph nodes and tonsils where they undergo final maturation. Matured lymphocytes circulate in the body fluids. T-cells are responsible for cellular immunity and B- cells produce antibodies about 20 trillion per day. Both components require antigens to trigger them into action but they respond differently.

 

Antigens

An antigen is a substance when introduce into an individual, stimulates the production of an antibody with which it reacts. Antigens are large molecules of proteins or polysaccharides. Some of the antigens are the parts of microorganisms others include pollen, egg white, certain fruits, vegetables, chicken, feathers etc.

 

Antibodies

Antibodies are protein molecules called immunoglobulin (Ig). They are produced by lymphocytes. The antibodies inactivate antigens. An antibody  consists of four amino acid chains bounded together by disulphide bonds. Of the four chains two are long, heavy chains and two are short, light chains. All of them are arranged in the shape of the letter ‘Y’. The tail portion of antibody having two heavy chains is called constant fragment (Fc). On the tip of each short arm, an antigen- binding fragment (Fab) is present which specifically hold antigen.

Based upon the five types of heavy chains, the immunoglobulin's are classified into five major types. Light chains are similar in all

 

types of Immunoglobulin's.

lgG is the most important long acting antibody representing about 80% of the antibodies. The second important antibody is 1gM. IgA is called secretory antibody, found in tears, saliva and colostrum, (the first milk secreted by mother). IgD serves as a receptor site at the surface of B cells to secrete other antibodies. IgE plays an important role in allergic reactions by sensitizing cells to certain antigens.

previous topic is immunity basics

Immunity-Basics

IMMUNITY

The ability of the organisms to resist almost all types of toxins that damage the tissues and organs is called Immunity. The study of resistance towards disease is called Immunology. Protection against infectious disease is immune response which is concerned with the reaction of the body against foreign antigen.

I

MMUNITY TYPES:

Immunity against infectious diseases is of two important types viz.

1. Innate Immunity and 2. Acquired Immunity.

 

1. Innate immunity

Innate or native immunity is the resistance to infections which an individual possesses by virtue of his genetic and constitutional make up. It is not affected by prior contact with microorganisms or immunisation. The various organs in human body like epithelial surface, blood and tissues are naturally adapted for exhibiting immunity. Natural defence in the body is also mediated by

i. Microphages - Polymorpho - nuclear leucocytes and

ii. Macrophages - Histiocytes, reticulo endothelial cells and monocytes.

2. Acquired Immunity

The immunity that is acquired by an individual is known as Acquired immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types, namely

a. Active immunity b. passive immunity 

a. Active immunity:

If the resistance is developed as a result of an antigenic stimulus, it is called Active Immunity. For example a person who has recovered from an attack of measles develops Natural immunity.

b. Passive immunity:

If the resistance is transmitted to a recipient in a readymade form, it is known as passive immunity.

The acquired immunity is also of two types namely

i. Humoral immunity or B cell immunity ii. Cell mediated immunity or T cell immunity.

i. Humoral Immunity:

The term humor refers to plasma and lymph. The humoral immune system defends mostly against bacteria and viruses that enter the body fluids. The humoral immunity is antibody mediated.

ii.Cell mediated Immunity:

The cell mediated immune system is carried out by highly specialsed cells, which work against pathogens, including fungi and protista that have invaded host cells. The system also reacts against transplants. It is thought to be important in protecting the body from its own cells if they become cancerous.

previous topic:cloning of animals

Cloning

Cloning Procedure

The recent branch in applied genetics is Genetic engineering or Biotechnology or Recombinant DNA technology. The genetic engineering permits cloning in animals breeding.

Clone is a population of cells or individuals which are genetically identical. With the death of an organism, a particular genotype is lost. Cloning is meant for preservation of the genotype of an organism. The cloning is of two types namely

i. Gene Cloning at molecular level

and

ii. Cloning of organisms.

Ian Wilmut of Rocline Institute, Edinburgh has produced a clone of adult lamb named Dolly in the year 1997. The genetic material from udder cells of one sheep was extracted and implanted into another sheep’s egg (that fails to embryonic development) after removing its genetic material. The fused cell developed into an embryo which was implanted into the uterus of another sheep which acted as surrogate mother. The young sheep born through surrogate mother is named as Dolly.

When a useful drug is prepared from a sheep the cloning of such sheep is nothing but establishment of drug factories. Wilmut has cloned Dolly for this purpose.

Dolly was cloned to produce Molly and Polly, two lambs cloned with a human gene for blood clotting factor IX. The milk of Molly and Polly contains Factor IX that can be extracted for use in treatment of human haemophilia.

Attempts are also being made. to create cows and sheep that can produce pure blood for preveriting the infection of HIV and hepatitis virus during blood transfusion.

Simian cloning (Cloning of monkeys) was carried out by Don Wolf (USA) in 1996 from an eight cell embryo. A Japan Scientist, The ruhikoVakayama has made cloning experiments in rats. He has produced number of embryos by using a nucleus and an ovum. A nucleus was extracted from rat’s tissue and injected into another cell without nucleus. Within six hours number of nuclei are produced from a single nucleus. He has created dozens of clones from them. He has also created clones to clones in addition to 50 similar rats of three generations.

Recently in the year 1998 “Perfectural Livestock Research Centre” in TOKYO has created two calves named Kaga and Noto.

Human Cloning

Different opinions were expressed on human cloning. About 15 countries have signed an agreement on formulating laws to prevent human cloning. A professor of London university has expressed that cloning of body organs and cells is medically beneficial than cloning of entire body.

Indian council of Medical Research (ICMR) has also called upon to ban human cloning in India. ICMR has suggested that cloning experiments can be made by embryo splitting but not by nuclear transplantation.

Biotechnology proves that wonderful results can be obtained by careful gene cloning. One can look forward to yield better results instead of bad consequences by this process called cloning.

know more about various animal breeding methods and poultry breeding and cattle breeding

POULTRY BREEDING

Introduction and controlled animal breeding have been helpful in imporving other animal species like chicken, ducks, sheeps and pigs. Aseel, Chittagong and Ghaugs are some of the Desi breeds of fowls. White leg horn, Rhode island red, Black Minorca are the introduced varieties.

India and the neighboring countries are recognised as the original home of the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). There is evidence that a Aseel or Malay fowl were carried to Europe through the middle east about 2000 years ago and have given rise to the present day European breeds.

Poultry and poultry products are rich source of animal proteins and other nutrients such as fats, vitamins and minerals . Consumption of eggs would pave the way for overcoming protein malnutrition prevalent among children in India.

The domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) population of our country can be roughly classified into two types:

i. Indigenous (Desi type)

ii. Exotic (Improved type)

Some of the indigenous breeds like Aseel, karaknath, Ghagus Brahma, Bursa are the best table birds. The Aseel fowls are used in cock-fighting.

The exotic breeds are classified according to their source of origin, into American class, English class, Asiatic class. Mediterranean class and nature of some Standard classes, common breeds and important fowls

The indigenous breeds are crossed with exotic breeds for improving egg production. Heterosis has been utilised for producing better egg layers and broilers with high nutritive value.

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Cattle Breeding

CATTLE BREEDING IN INDIA

        In India farmers depend largely on bullocks for ploughing, irrigation and carting. Hence India needs a good number of efficient bullocks.  Droppings from cattle constitute the most important source of manure for the soil for maintaining its fertility. India is an important supplier of animal skin to the international market. Horns,hoofs and bones are utilized in industries. Bone-meal is used as mineral supplement in cattle and poultry feeds. 

In the villages desirable bulls are selected on the basis of draughtability and permitted to graze with the cows to bring about random animal breeding. Bulls not selected for breeding are castrated when young and converted to bullocks. They are the main source of animal draught power in India.

About 10-60 per cent cows are artificially inseminated by semen collected from high quality bulls. Artificial insemination ensures good quality progeny and is-also economical as semen from a single bull can inseminate several thousand cows.

An average cow or buffalo produces 8 - 10 calves during its productive life time. Generally only one ovum is fertilised at a time. Selective breeding,progenytesting and improvement take longer time in the livestock than in annual food crops. Majority of Indian cattle have been on marginal inputs and are infertile and poor milk yielders. Research on the cause of infertility led to the use of pregnant mare serum gonadotropin, to increase fertility. Stilbesterol tablets are implanted to induce lactation in sterile cows and immature females

To increase the milk yield, Indian cows are cross-bred with European breeds like Holstein, Brown Swiss, Jersey, Red Dane and others. The Karanswiss and Sunandini are the breeds developed through cross breeding at the National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, and in Kerala, respectively.

 

Super ovulation and Embryo Transplantation

It is a kind of animal breeding method in wich A pedigreed bull and a high production cows are chosen to produce super milch cows. Super ovulation is induced by hormone injection. After artificial insemination, 4-10 embryos are collected at a time. Each embryo is then transplanted into a “carrier” cow (surrogate mother). Such embryo transplants can also be carried out in sheep, goats and other livestock. By deep freezing (—1 96°Cy it is posibIe to preserve seven days old foetuses for several years to be used when needed. An embryo can be cut into two, to obtain homo zygotic twins. The most beneficial outcome of embryo transplantation is the selection of high quality bulls for genetic upgrading.

 

Breeds of cattle

There are over 24 major breeds of cattle and 6 breeds of buffaloes in India. These can either adapt themselves to local conditions or conditions throughout the country. The quality of the cattle, in general, depends on the environmental conditions, especially on rainfall, temperature and humidity Indian cattle are found to do well in dry areas whereas they tend to be small in areas of heavy rainfall such as the coastal and hilly regions of the country. The important breeds of Indian cattle's for different purposes are as follows:

1. Much breeds: Eq - Gir, Deoni, Sahiwal, Red Sindhi etc.

2. Draught breeds: Eg- Malvi, Nageri, Hallikar, Kangayam etc.

3. General utility breeds : Eg- Ongole, Haryana, Kankrej, Tharparkar etc.

BUFFALLOES

Murrah ,,Bhadaubri ,Jaffrabadi ,S urti, Thehsana ,Nagpuri or Ellichpuri ,Nih Ravi ,

Buffaloes are better than cows because they are more resistant to diseases, give more milk and live longer. Their milk yielding capacity is three times more than cows. Buffalo’s milk is also superior to cow’s milk in fat content and minerals. The number of buffaloes in India is about one third of the cows.

Animal Breeding-Methods

ANIMAL BREEDING-VARIOUS METHODS

The following animal breeding methods are followed for improvement of animals in dairy and poultry namely

1. Inbreeding, 2. Outbreeding and 3. Mutations.

1. Inbreeding

The crossing of closely related animals is called Inbreeding. If this inbreeding is repeated continuously, it is called Upgrading. Inbreeding is used to retain desirable genetic traits in animals. Inbreeding is required in order to retain as many traits as possible by keeping the combination of genes intact.
However, the inbreeding may result in homozygous recessive genes coming together to express some harmful phenotypic traits. Many breeding scientists have observed that hybrid vigour and fertility were lost due to repeated inbreeding. Such recessive and harmful genes are removed by some special techniques without sacrificing the major quality of the animal. If the race is relatively free of such harmful recessive genes, the process of inbreeding is a safe method for improvement of animals.

2. Outbreeding

    The crossing of distantly related animals is called Outbreeding. One of the problems the animal breeder faces in outbreeding is introduction of new genes into population. In this method it is possible to breed a desirable type of animal with a less desirable type and then to increase the degree of desirable traits. New and high yielding genes can be introduced into the population through outbreeding. In many cases these genes may come from a variety of stock.
Out breeding in animals is useful for different purposes viz., A

i. To produce some valuable traits ii. To create new breeds iii. To produce a hybrid of superior vigour and value.

i. To produce some valuable traits:
Beef cattle may be crossed with dairy cattle to produce calves for superior veal (flesh) production.

ii. To create new breeds:
A new breed is produced with desired characters from the two original breeds. This process of producing new breeds takes time. The present day breeds of animals have been developed through hybridisation.

iii. To produce a hybrid of superior Vigour and VaIue

A Mule is produced by crossing Equus equus (mare or female horse) and Equus homonius (jack or male ass). Mules are superior to horses in strength, endurance, resistance to disease and ability to work under unfavorable conditions. When a female mule is crossed with a jack, a colt is produced.

3. Mutations 

The new traits into populations can also be induced through mutations. Since most of the mutations are harmful and the process of induction of mutations is quite expensive, this method of improvement of animals is impractical. It has been reported that a sheep in New England mutated in the direction of having shorter legs (a desirable quality) and formed the basis for racial improvement of sheep.
Representative examples of improvements in animals by mutations include poultry that is resistant to white diarrhoea, increased egg production in fowls, increased fat content in milk and better meat yielding in Turkeys etc.

Animal Breeding-Introduction

INTRODUCTION to ANIMAL BREEDING

From the very early days human beings depend on animals and animal products for food and other requirements. In dairy and poultry farms high yielding animals are reared. These high yielding animals are produced by hybridisation experiments. Previously the animals were developed basing on unscientific methods. Before the discovery of principles of heredity human beings have selected the animals with required characters and learned to develop the plants having the selected characters. This phenomenon is called Artificial selection. However, an increased knowledge of biology, especially genetics, has helped in improving the quality of animals and animal products as per the human requirements.

  ANIMAL BREEDING-PRINCIPLES
The animal breeder faces many complex problems during hybridisation experiments because many traits of animals are dependent on the interaction of multiple genes. When the attempts are made only to increase the size of eggs in fowls,it was observed that the progeny produced yielded few number of eggs or even they die sometimes. That is if only one character is taken for improvement of the animals, the other characters will degenerate or result in harmful effects. Hence at the time of selection all the desirable characters are to be taken into consideration. The techniques for the improvement of animals involve principles of selection based on quantitative variations. It is not possible for all of the desirable traits to be obtained in one individual. The successful product must contain maximum number of desirable traits and a minimum number of undesirable traits.

1. The body form

It is an important factor in selecting racially improved variety of animals. A certain body form in cattle and broilers will be having high market value. They yield delicious mutton if they are having well built body form.

2. Productivity
This is of great significance to the breeder. Some times it has first priority over other traits. For example the number of eggs, quantity of milk, or wool per animal is an important criterion in any programme of improvement of animals.

3. Quality of the product
In addition to the quantity, the quality of the productivity is also to be taken into consideration during breeding experiments. The cattle which yield low quantity of milk but having high percentage of fat content are more prominent than those which yield high quantity of milk but with low percentage of fat content. Similarly he quality of wool in a sheep is more important than the quantity of wool.

4. Resistance to diseases
The ability of the animal to resist diseases, to withstand adverse environmental conditions are also important in the animals produced by hybridisation experiments.

5. Early maturity
It is another trait that the animal breeders look into for improvement of animals. The earlier, the animals mature to the productive age, lesser is the cost of maintaining them. If a hen matures early and begins egg production, it is more valuable than that which matures later.

6. Economy in the use of food
If the amount of food required to produce a certain quantity and quality of animal product is comparatively higher, the commercial value of such an animal is said to be very low.
In milk yielding cattle and egg yielding fowls if most of their food material is converted into productivity, such cattle and fowls are considered as more valuable. The above-mentioned are only few of the desirable qualities that the animal breeders select for improvement of animals.

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